1. Defining Relative Clauses: Essential Identification
١. جمل الوصل المحددة (Defining Relative Clauses): معلومات أساسية لتعريف الاسم
Defining relative clauses give essential information to identify which person, thing, or place we are talking about. Without this clause, the sentence is incomplete or ambiguous. NO commas are used.
Relative Pronouns in Defining Clauses
• who / that (for people)
• which / that (for things and animals)
• whose (for possession)
• where (for places)
• when (for times)
Noun + who / which / that / whose / where + defining clause (NO COMMAS)
- The engineer who / that designed the solar plant won an award.
- This is the charitable organization which / that supports orphaned children.
- That is the volunteer whose dedication inspired our team.
Omitting the Relative Pronoun (Object Position)
When the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the relative clause, it can be omitted.
Noun + [omitted pronoun] + Subject + Verb
- The contract (which/that) they signed yesterday is legally binding.
- The mentor (who/that) I met at the conference gave great advice.
2. Non-Defining Relative Clauses: Extra Information & Comma Rules
٢. جمل الوصل غير المحددة (Non-Defining Relative Clauses): معلومات إضافية وقواعد الفواصل الإلزامية
Non-defining relative clauses give extra, non-essential information about a person or thing already clearly identified. If you remove the clause, the sentence still makes complete sense. MUST be separated by commas.
Punctuation & Relative Pronouns
Surrounded by commas (, ... ,). You CANNOT use 'that' (must use who/which/whose/where). You CANNOT omit the pronoun.
Proper Noun / Specific Noun, who / which / whose / where ..., Main Verb (COMMAS MANDATORY, NEVER 'THAT')
- Dr. Al-Zahrani, who graduated from King Saud University, leads the research team.
- Riyadh, which is the capital of Saudi Arabia, is expanding rapidly.
3. Reported Speech: Tense Backshifts in Statements
٣. الكلام المنقول (Reported Speech): قواعد تحويل الأزمنة للماضي في الجمل الخبرية
When reporting what someone said in the past, the verbs usually shift back one tense into the past.
Tense Shift Matrix
• Present Simple ➔ Past Simple (live ➔ lived)
• Present Continuous ➔ Past Continuous (am working ➔ was working)
• Past Simple / Present Perfect ➔ Past Perfect (saw / have seen ➔ had seen)
• will ➔ would | can ➔ could | must / have to ➔ had to
Subject + said (that) / told + object + (that) + [Backshifted Verb]
- Direct: 'I support renewable energy.' ➔ Reported: He said that he supported renewable energy.
- Direct: 'We have submitted the proposal.' ➔ Reported: She told me that they had submitted the proposal.
4. Say vs Tell & Time/Place Expression Shifts
٤. الفرق بين (Say) و (Tell) وتحويل ظروف الزمان والمكان والضمائر
Use 'say' without a personal object (or 'say to someone'), but 'tell' MUST be followed immediately by the person (personal object).
Say vs Tell Formula
• said (that)... (NO object)
• told + person (that)... (Object REQUIRED)
said that... / told ME / HIM / HER / US / THEM that...
- He said that he was ready. (NOT: *He said me that...*)
- He told me that he was ready. (NOT: *He told that...*)
Time and Place Word Shifts
• today ➔ that day
• yesterday ➔ the day before / the previous day
• tomorrow ➔ the next day / the following day
• now ➔ then / at that moment
• here ➔ there | this ➔ that
yesterday ➔ the previous day | tomorrow ➔ the next day | here ➔ there
- Direct: 'I will visit the site tomorrow.' ➔ Reported: He said he would visit the site the next day.
5. Reported Questions, Commands & Requests
٥. نقل الأسئلة والأوامر والطلبات (Reported Questions & Commands)
Reported questions do NOT use question word order (do/does/did disappear) and do NOT take question marks. Commands use 'told / asked someone TO + verb'.
Yes/No Questions with 'if' or 'whether'
Use 'asked + if/whether + subject + verb in statement order'.
Subject + asked (me) if/whether + Subject + Verb
- Direct: 'Do you live in Riyadh?' ➔ Reported: She asked me if I lived in Riyadh.
Wh-Questions: Keep Wh-word + Statement Order
Do not invert subject and auxiliary. No question mark.
Subject + asked + Wh-word + Subject + Verb
- Direct: 'Where is the legal department?' ➔ Reported: He asked where the legal department was.
Reported Commands & Requests: told/asked + to + base verb
For negative commands: told/asked + not to + base verb.
Subject + told/asked + person + (not) to + base verb
- Direct: 'Please wear your safety helmet.' ➔ Reported: The supervisor asked us to wear our safety helmets.
- Direct: 'Don't touch the live wires.' ➔ Reported: The electrician told him not to touch the live wires.
🇸🇦 Saudi Learner Pitfalls & High-Frequency Exam Traps
الأخطاء الشائعة لمتعلمي اللغة الإنجليزية وحيل الاختبارات الدقيقة
⚠️ Critical Pitfall 1: Using 'that' in Non-Defining Relative Clauses (*My brother, that lives in Jeddah...*)
استخدام (that) في جمل الوصل غير المحددة التي تحتوي على فواصل
In English, 'that' can ONLY be used in defining relative clauses without commas. In non-defining clauses with commas, you MUST use 'who' for people and 'which' for things.
*My father, that is a civil engineer, built our house. (INCORRECT)
My father, who is a civil engineer, built our house. (CORRECT)
⚠️ Critical Pitfall 2: Confusing 'Said' and 'Told' (*He said me that / He told that*)
الخلط بين (said) و (told) في وجود المفعول به المخاطب
'Told' must always have a person after it (told me, told us, told the judge). 'Said' does not take an object before 'that'.
*She said me that the meeting was postponed. / *He told that he was tired. (INCORRECT)
She told me that the meeting was postponed. / He said that he was tired. (CORRECT)
⚠️ Critical Pitfall 3: Keeping Question Inversion in Reported Questions (*He asked where was I*)
الاحتفاظ بترتيب السؤال المقلوب في الأسئلة المنقولة غير المباشرة
In reported questions, word order returns to normal statement order (Subject + Verb). Never use question inversion or auxiliary 'did/do'.
*She asked me where did I live. / *He asked what was my name. (INCORRECT)
She asked me where I lived. / He asked what my name was. (CORRECT)
⚠️ Critical Pitfall 4: Forgetting Tense Backshift (*He told me he will come tomorrow*)
نسيان تحويل الفعل للماضي (will -> would / is -> was) في الكلام المنقول
When the reporting verb is in the past ('said / told / asked'), the reported verb must backshift into past forms ('will' -> 'would', 'can' -> 'could', 'tomorrow' -> 'the next day').
*He said he will sign the contract tomorrow. (INCORRECT in reported past context)
He said he would sign the contract the next day. (CORRECT)